The Georgian Origins of Island Domestic Architecture.
Again, and again, in the mid-1980s, I would drive the short distance from Charlottetown east to Marshfield, along the Saint Peter’s Road, and park on a layby and look at this house, now long demolished, sitting in its extensive farmland. Empty, a bit shabby, no longer the centre of an energetic farm family life, it nonetheless mesmerised me by its occult symmetry, its bold frontispiece with a recessed door and protruding three-part window in the upstairs hall. It had a story to tell, an English one, that first manifested itself in the Eighteenth Century. The fascination was not only with the house and its style, but also its place at the head of ordered acres of farmland, pasture and woodlot.
Marshfield is about five miles northeast of Charlottetown, with the Saint Peter’s Road running through it. Because of its desirable location and excellent land, it had been settled early. The name of this community comes from the village of Marshfield, about 9 miles east of the city of Bristol in Gloucestershire, where the purchaser, R. P. Haythorne (1815-91), had been a former magistrate. Hawthorne purchased a large estate of 10,000 acres around 1842 through which the Saint Peter’s Road ran. Some years after establishing himself in this beautiful spot, Haythorne became Premier of PEI from 1869-70 and again, from 1872-73. When the Land Question was at its height, he sold his land to his tenants at $2 per acre, keeping 157 acres for himself.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Haythorne
Having set the tone for this post with a classically derived farmhouse in its carefully moulded landscape, it is time to go on in a perhaps surprising direction as we search for the origins of all this. This farmhouse, in this style, would never have been built if a Venetian architect, Andrea Palladio had not designed a farmhouse set in reclaimed marshland in the Po Valley in the Veneto in 1550. Let us look at this man and his work.
Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) and his influence.
Palladio was one of the greatest architects of the Renaissance, perhaps of all time. His main centre of activity was in the Venetian Republic and there he created extraordinary country houses that were the centre of administration for vast new farms which came into being through the process of draining marshlands in the watershed of the Po River.
Alessandro Maganza (1556–1630) – Andrea Palladio, private collection Moscow
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Palladio
Greek and Roman architecture were the sources of his inspiration, and he was, as so many others after him would be, deeply influenced by the writings of the Roman architect Vitruvius whose Ten Books of Architecture had been recently discovered and printed in lavishly illustrated editions. Palladio was especially impressed in building these great country houses oriented to the cardinal points so that, as Vitruvius suggested, the movement of air was conducive to good health. He designed many kinds of buildings, including churches, palaces, and other public buildings, but he is best remembered for his functional country houses and rural villas designed for pleasure away from the city. Thus, was reborn the ancient Roman passion to escape urban filth and congestion by having a place in the country to regain a healthy lifestyle. Palladio designed about two dozen of these country places as well as an equal number of civic buildings in Venice and Vicenza. He wrote a book, I quattro libri dell’ architettura (The Four Books of Architecture,) wonderfully illustrated and soon translated into the major European languages where they changed the course of monumental country architecture forever, in Europe and America.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_quattro_libri_dell%27architettura
Beginning in the Fifteenth Century the basic elements of Italian architecture were redefined by the abandonment of the Gothic style from the North to be replaced completely – but with interpretation – with the elements of Classical Roman Architecture. Thus, buildings were constructed on high bases or podia (singular podium) approached by a monumental set of stairs that led to a portico or covered porch that was an exact copy of a Roman temple front, such as one could see at the Temple of Portunus near the Tiber in the Roman Forum Boarium or the Maison Carée at Nîmes in the South of France.
I cannot stress too many times how important it is for the student of architecture – even of colonial farmhouses – to acquire a very basic vocabulary of Classical house elements so that the design relationships across the centuries are never lost sight of. Here is a graphic I prepared to help you focus on what you are about to see.
These terms should be in the vocabulary of every person who wishes to study the history of our architecture. They crop up in nearly every building we see today.
The Palladian Window
This is a good moment to introduce another design feature that came to our doorstep directly from the Renaissance. It is the format of a window that is still to be seen in many houses across the Island. It is called the Palladian Window and consists of an ordinary house window widened by the addition of two lateral narrow sashes and often with a semicircular crown in the central portion. In this graphic I show you the extraordinary building in Vicenza that introduced to the world of the Renaissance a new shape for a window or colonnade opening. Its popularity would spread, under a variety of names (Palladian, Serliano) all through Europe, Great Britain, and from there, through colonisation, to Belmont House in the East Royalty of Charlottetown.
The Villa Rotunda or Capra – 1550
Alvise Bagagiolo-PHV-Aerial and Ground
The building where it all started has several names – the Villa Capra, the Villa Rotunda, La Rotunda, Villa Almerico Capra, but its correct name is Villa Almerico Capra Valmarana. The Capra part of the name comes from heirs who completed the work after 1592.
This arresting textbook illustration from an elevated angle beautifully captured by the drone photography of Alvise Bagagiolo tells us a great deal about the building. It is a square box sitting on a basement, on top of which is a grand storey of public rooms called the piano nobile (the noble floor – main reception rooms) and topped with an attic of private chambers. Like Ancient and Renaissance Italian architecture, the square is hollow with a courtyard, here illuminated and protected by a dome and cupola, hence the name rotunda.
People often wonder why the house has four identical monumental classical temple porches, when most houses need only one. But this was not an ordinary house. It was the farm headquarters of a vast land-draining project that turned huge areas of the marshland of the Po Valley watershed into extremely rich agricultural territory. The processes used to achieve this were identical to those used by the Acadians, fifty-some years later to create the vast Tantramar Marshes outside Sackville, NB. The land was not only reclaimed but shaped to create a pleasing landscape, and that is why the porches of the Villa Rotunda face, at forty-five degrees from the cardinal points, the surrounding topography, created for its beauty as well as its expected agricultural productivity. This placing of the building in this exact orientation was based on the recommendations primarily concerned with health considerations espoused by ancient authors such as Vitruvius, whose Ten Books of Architecture had just been discovered and published at the time of Palladio. Every topographical and architectural planner from that time on would begin their presentations by quoting the ancients on health and practicality. Thus, the building is oriented to a picturesque new landscape that had never existed before. Much has changed over the centuries with development and transportation, but aerial photographs such as these give you a very clear idea that this is a country house, exhibiting the deepest concern for all parts of the land that surround it.
All the surrounding town architecture you see in this photo would not have been there when the Villa Rotunda was built. It is the result of the fracturing of that great farm project and the effects of aggressive growth and development in the Veneto.
Palladio produced many rural villa designs and some of them featured lateral wings or pavilions joined to the main structure by covered porticoes. A fine example of the type is to be found at Maser in the Veneto, called the Villa Barbaro, but also known as the Villa di Maser, built in the 1560-70 period. These lateral wings would become an important feature of neo-Palladian houses built in England in the early Eighteenth Century, where they served as kitchen wings and sometimes stables.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Barbaro
How did the Villa Rotunda influence the architecture of Great Britain?
The Palladian villas in the Veneto became an architectural craze in England at the beginning of the Eighteenth Century, particularly in the renovating and bringing into focus of older buildings from the Baroque age and for the completely new unimaginably grand country estates that would be built by noblemen and especially very wealthy persons who were leading the Industrial Revolution. While the Palladian villas had been built in the centre of active farmland, in carefully landscaped acres reclaimed from the marshes, the neo-Palladian villas in England were surrounded by unimaginably vast gardens, where hills and rivers were moved and reshaped to create ideal landscapes such as had been painted in the previous century by Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) and Claude Lorraine (1600-1682). The thousands of functioning farmland acres would be beyond all this, in the surrounding countryside.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Lorrain
Claude Lorraine – Pastoral Landscape: The Roman Campagna, c.1639. Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY.
Palladio’s works were by now very well known through large folio volumes of engravings of his most famous buildings and by new editions of Vitruvius and Palladio himself, published in several languages. One building in particular caught the attention of some very influential connoisseurs of the day and was to be the focus for the introduction of the true Palladian style – already more than 150 years old, into Great Britain. It was the Villa Rotunda.
Lord Burlington and his Villa at Chiswick
Richardson, Jonathan (1557-1745), Robert Boyle, Third Earl of Burlington, oil on canvas, 57.5 x 46 in., c. 1717-19, National Portrait Gallery, London. Used with permission.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Boyle,_3rd_Earl_of_Burlington
Richard Boyle, the Third Earl of Burlington (1694-1753) can be called the stupor mundi – the wonder of the world – of his age. As well as possessing noble titles he was a British architect whose participation and influence in the arts was so great that he was called the “Apollo of the Arts.’ He showed little interest in politics, rather devoting his time to studying and practising architecture and landscape design. He was a great patron of architects, builders and landscapers and is generally credited for bringing the Palladian style to Britain and Ireland.
Burlington was great friends with the poet Alexander Pope (1688-1744), the most brilliant poet of his time who wrote principally in iambic pentameter rhyming couplets that were terse, to the point, and memorable. He wrote verse letters to various persons and in this one to Lord Burlington in 1731, he expresses most forcefully his views on architecture in the landscape. Here we find his famous phrase about bring guided, in all things, by the spirit of the place – the genius loci of the Romans.
These sentiments were very much in the air as England transformed the formal gardens and landscape of the Baroque into the inviting, comforting landscape of the picturesque.
Burlington travelled a great deal on the continent, and he took three Grand Tours between 1714 and 1719. He also went to Paris in 1726 and so was able to see in these many travels to the chief cities of Europe the delights – ancient and modern – that gave him a superb visual education of all the architectural forms that were becoming popular in the Eighteenth Century.
When he visited the Veneto in 1719 to see the Palladian villas many of them were flooded due to breaches in the dikes that drained this difficult terrain. He never made it to the Villa Rotunda, which was his favourite.
Burlington, at this time, became friends with Colen Campbell (1676-1729), a Scottish architect who is often credited with establishing the Georgian style of architecture, which was based on the symmetry of previous continental architecture but also the dynamism and excitement of the Palladian style of the 1550s.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colen_Campbell
Campbell spent a great deal of time in Italy, familiarising himself with its architecture from Antiquity to the Renaissance. He wrote a quite astonishing three-volume folio work called Vitruvius Britannicus (1715-25), showing all the great houses of his time. For students of architecture, it is still a basic work and has been reproduced in facsimile a number of times. His influence in this period was enormous.
Loathing the old Baroque style of the 1600s Campbell began to experiment with designs derived from Palladio. He produced a fine design of a house based on the Villa Rotunda which he tried to persuade Lord Burlington to build, but Burlington refused it as he had Palladian plans of his own. Campbell then sold the design to another and in 1722-25 Mereworth Castle in Kent was built. It introduced the Palladian domed profile to the English landscape.
Colen Campbell – Mereworth Castle, Kent. Photo by Regina Jeffers on Pinterest
In this heady milieu Lord Burlington began his first architectural project in London by working on his home, called unsurprisingly Burlington House. At this time, he was consulting with Colen Campbell for architectural design and William Kent (1685 – 1748), a great interior designer who also furnished his interiors with strangely grotesque Baroque-inspired furniture.
In the 1720s Burlington parted company with these men and set to work to design, with the help of the second generation of neo-Palladian architects, a curious project that defies definition. Inspired by the Villa Rotunda it was meant to express his idea of an ancient Roman villa, of which accounts survive, and where people like Cicero went to read their books and have intellectual conversations with their friends. These Roman villas were also famous for their gardens and so Burlington devised gardens around his villa at Chiswick that inspired the work of many followers.
The villa was a simplified version of the Villa Rotunda, with just the piano nobile over a basement podium hidden by very elaborate staircases, and a lovely dome rising above the hipped roof. The drum of the dome, which is octagonal, is pierced by semi-circular Palladian windows which may have had their origins in the Baths of Diocletian in Rome. For the main floor Burlington used sash windows with the small panes of glass fashionable at that time and this influenced all subsequent neo-Palladian and Georgian architecture until late in the Nineteenth Century.
Chiswick House is often described as the finest surviving example of neo-Palladian architecture in England, and while never intended to be a house (his actual home was nearby) its function as a pavilion to display art and manuscripts, and to engage in exciting intellectual discussion of these treasures, became a source of inspiration for villas in Britain, Europe and America. To this day, we go back to Chiswick House to be reminded of the energy and design that had so much influence on the developing Georgian styles that would be taken by the British colonists to America, and from there, in simplified form, to Prince Edward Island.
Lord Burlington – Chiswick House. Photo: Michael Coppins
Here is the source for our central porch, topped by a Palladian window as a dormer or part of a protruding frontispiece, and the windows made up of sashes filled with small panes of glass. For us, it all begins here.
A few more words on British Palladian architecture and landscape…
Before we finally turn our attention to the small-scale houses and gardens that characterised Georgian and neo-Palladian architecture in the Colony of Saint John’s Island, I want to introduce you to two great estates that contributed to the evolution of this kind of architecture and which introduced to the world magnificent gardens, surrounded by innumerable agricultural acres, that were inspired by French Baroque art of Poussin and Lorraine. In a very small way, these grand extravagances influenced our thinking through the memories of home brought by influential new settlers and by books, for ordinary people, published at that time which reflected the new house and garden style of Britain.
First, I want to look briefly at Duncombe Park, a house converted to neo-Palladianism, but which is important as the environment in which Isaac Smith, Prince Edward Island’s greatest builder of the Colonial Period, obtained his visual and practical skills. Here it is that he gained a knowledge of design and scale in a landscape that he demonstrated at Government House and Province House in Charlottetown.
Duncombe Park – The Transition to Georgian Palladian
In 1694 Charles Duncombe, one of the richest untitled persons in England, bought the enormous Helmsley estate. After his death in 1711 it passed to his sister’s son, Thomas Brown, who changed his name to Thomas Duncombe. Duncombe Park, in a solid masculine Tuscan Doric order, was completed in 1713 to designs by a Yorkshire gentleman architect called William Wakefield. Its ultimate inspiration was a French style of country house but responding to the craze for Palladian architecture introduced by Lord Burlington and his friends, by the addition of lateral wings joined by curving porticoes, it became “Palladianised.”
At that time the estate was 40,000 acres, the size of two township lots on Prince Edward Island. Duncombe gained the title of Earl which stayed in the family until 1963, when it was reduced to a Barony. Today the estate is reduced to 300 acres and although the house is closed to the public, its famous gardens are open for rental on various occasions.
The house is located about a mile southwest of Helmsley in North Yorkshire, memorable for the area that produced the very important Nineteenth Century Island architect, Isaac Smith, who came from the village of Harome.
It is probable that the Smith family were employed iv various capacities to work on this great estate, with its house, outbuildings, archaeological sites and vast gardens, farms and forests. As a worker on this very early Palladian estate he would have learned not only skills in carpentry, cabinetmaking and even masonry, but he would have learned very thoroughly the language of Classical architecture. I include this house in this brief survey of Palladian architecture in England because it represents an older style being altered to be part of a new craze in building, and because Isaac Smith, our most important Island architect who designed Government House and Province House was present at the birth of the new style, which he brought to the Island.
Stourhead, by Colen Campbell, 1721-24
Colen Campbell went on to have a brilliant career as a neo-Palladian architect. Perhaps his most spectacular success was at Stourhead, a 2,650-acre estate near the source of the Stour River in the southwest of England, in the county of Wiltshire. It was built in 1721-24, destroyed by fire and rebuilt, more or less as it originally was, in 1906. The astonishing gardens, perhaps the most famous in all of Britain and Europe, were built, with enormous labour and the moving of earth and water in the 1741-1780 period. It is now in the care of the National Trust.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stourhead
The vast gardens at Stourhead are full of mythological allusions to the Aeneid of Vergil, describing Aeneas the hero’s descent into the Underworld. A copy of the Pantheon in Rome provides the central focus for the principal view, although the many acres of meadow, woodland and water are arranged to be viewed from many different angles where long vistas are terminated by eye-catchers, either monuments or buildings. It is probably after this time that the now old-fashioned expression, “pretty as a picture’ came into use, as landscape painting of the previous century played such a role in determining the perfect relationships of all the component parts of landscape and the larger topography. It is at this time that the word PICTURESQUE entered the language and inspired the creation of gardens from tiny to vast in scale that gave the impression of being straight out of a painting. The word inspired many books and was still very influential when American writers like Andrew Jackson Downing, in the Romantic Movement of the mid-Nineteenth Century, wrote books whose influence can be still seen today, such as at Ardgowan House in Charlottetown.
The Other Face of the English Rural Landscape
While many paintings and engravings celebrate the landscape of the great Georgian Neo-Palladian estates, with their grand houses and gardens filled with references to Greek and Roman mythology, we hardly encounter images that celebrate the land itself that provided the great wealth needed to run these earthly paradises. In all searching for art depicting the vernacular landscape in England showing the workers at their toil, only once did I find a breathtaking view of this moment.
https://www.cheltenhammuseum.org.uk/collection/the-dixton-manor-paintings/
Anon, Countryside Around Dixton Manor, c. 1730, o.c. 106.8 x 288 cm, Cheltenham Art Gallery and Museum, Gloucestershire.
This lovely landscape was painted in the early Eighteenth Century for the owners of the Dixon Manor, which is located near Cheltenham near Alderton in Gloucestershire. It is visible in the other painting in this pair commissioned by the owners of the manor, the Higford family.
In this picture of work in the fields we see harvest time when rows of men bearing scythes advance upon the grain while others tie the cut crop into stooks which are then loaded on wagons for transport to the barns. Harvest has customs and associations going back into prehistory, and while they have largely disappeared today, at this time the great horses pulling the carts were adorned with bright decorations, and in the lower right of the painting Morris Dancers are advancing on the activity in the fields. It was a time of fulfillment and celebration.
While we admire the neo-Palladian houses and their picturesque gardens, we should always remember that there was another world in the fields, far away from the sophistications of the inhabitants of these houses but having origins in remote antiquity. We should also remember that in our own Prince Edward Island the fields too had a personality and special functions, brought over from Britain and somehow absorbed into the newly cleared and drained land.
While artists in various western countries have happily painted landscapes of beautiful fields, separated by ancient hedgerows and filled with rich crops, the farmers who did all the work were seldom depicted. It is difficult to find closely observed farm workers doing their job. The artist Thomas Gainsborough had a go at it, but the result is more impressionistic than realistic. To focus on the realism of raking and filling a cart we need to turn to George Stubbs (1724 – 1806), known for his quite spectacular paintings of horses but who did not hesitate to turn his eye on the workers in the fields.
George Stubbs – The Haymakers, 1786, Tate Britain, London.
This painting in the Tate gives us a close-up view of this activity which interested so few artists in the era of the Georgian architectural efflorescence.
By the time the British colonists have been well established on the Island their activities in the fields are the subject of coloured post cards printed in Germany for the tourist market. Nothing essential in the process of harvesting has changed in all that time. This one was sent in 1909 and tells us that tourists to the Island were taken by this quaint behaviour – field work of millennia that nourished the world.
Post Card “Hay-Making” in P. E. Island, posted in 1909, Published by Stedman Brothers Limited, Brantford, Canada. Made in Germany.
Palladianism for the Middle Class – William Halfpenny
In the atmosphere present in Georgian England, it was not long before lesser architects than Burlington and his colleagues would be attracted to neo-Palladianism as a source of design not only for country villas, but also town houses and farms surrounded by their ancient acres. Book began to appear in considerable numbers that presented series of designs, all aimed at providing alternatives to different income brackets.
Perhaps the most famous of these architects was William Halfpenny (active 1723-1755). As well as being an active builder he produced a number of pattern books sold on the general market. These were small books, about the size of a sheet of paper today, not great folios, but easily carried about and consulted in the field. The 1749 edition I had access to for study had only 25 pages. Halfpenny starts with entrance courts with very fine substantial gates and gardens as a setting for the buildings. It is only at Plate 13 that he begins to provide plans and elevations for houses of different qualities. In his text, as concisely as possible, he provides all the necessary dimensions and also costs out the materials required for building. There are 31 designs, all of ascending quality, from a simple house that could be built in town or country. The final designs are for full massive Palladian country houses. He finishes with instructions on how to build a suitable bridge.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Halfpenny
The copy of Halfpenny to which, thirty five years ago, I was given extended access to study, photograph and copy, belonged to the late Eleanor Vass of Charlottetown. She was a woman of extraordinary taste and ability who studied for many years the architecture and topography of the Island, from Government House to the evolution of the road system.
Mrs. Vass’ copy of Halfpenny was extremely special because it brought us right into the heart of the creation of the British colony of the Island of Saint John by Samuel Holland.
It was Holland’s own copy of the book, with his name clearly inscribed on the title page!
Others of his circle had owned it also, including Sir Frederick Haldimand, KB (1718 – 1791), a military officer and colleague of Holland after whom a number of locations on the Island are named.
His simplest houses are essentially neo-Palladian in nature. This one, with a symbolic basement level and a pedimented portico has side wings which, in these reduced country patterns, were attached to the house as a sort of lean-to. We no longer have any examples on the Island but in Dorchester, NB, there is a fine example of this style in the Keilor House, now a community museum, built in 1813 out of local stone.
Another simple design presented by Halfpenny is the simple block Georgian house which was built in all parts of British North America.
Halfpenny, aiming his designs at the British market, assumed that the houses would be built of stone. In Dorchester and in Sackville houses with these specifications were built out of stone. These are what Halfpenny had in mind.
The Chandler House, Dorchester, NB, 1830.
Cranewood House, Sackville, NB, 1836.
Spring Park House
On Prince Edward Island, when the first engraved representation of a Georgian house appeared after 1810, there was no stone, so it had to be built out of wood.
It was the home of Colonel Robert Grey who came to the Island in 1787, urged by the Lieutenant Governor, Edmund Fanning. Both men had served in the Thirteen Colonies before the Revolution. Grey had been commander of the fortress of Georgetown in South Carolina, and when it fell to the rebels he fled to Shelbourne, Nova Scotia, and from there to Prince Edward Island. Fanning treated him generously and made him a member of His Majesty’s Council and Treasurer of the Colony.
It was around 1810 that Colonel Grey gained possession of a very large estate in the Charlottetown Common, which featured a powerful spring at a time when clean water was a rarity. It is believed that Grey named his estate, consisting of land originally intended for pasturage and gardens for the citizens of the city, Spring Park.
Shortly after this he ordered a large, engraved map of his proposed estate with a vignette of his simple Georgian house, possibly based on Halfpenny, or possibly from a simple design by the English Picturesque architect John Plaw who had just, in 1807, moved to the Island. The fact that this plan was engraved – something never seen before on the Island – suggests the influence of an important architect who may have had it produced for his own advertising uses. Plaw was a brilliant engraver and did many of the very elegant plates in the three books he published. A single copy of this plan has survived and is the most important architectural document in the whole of the provincial archives.
In the manner of traditional estate plans – this one the first of its kind on the Island – the property is drawn to scale, with dimensions and acreage, with fields and woodland all identified and named, as if it had been in this place, in English hands, for centuries. So important do I consider this precious battered document to be that I provide you with a pdf of the full-size document so that you can study it in great detail and with pleasure.
Spring Park Estate – PARO 0642
In my next post, which goes into more depth about the Spring Park estate I will examine the grounds in some detail to determine how the 76 acres were divided and arranged for both agricultural use and for picturesque effect.
The progress of Georgian neo-Palladian Architecture on the Island
Georgian architecture in its many forms came to the Island with the earliest well-to-do colonists who could afford to build substantial houses. In time, right up to the period of Confederation when the new Italianate Revival style took over, the simple, stolid, and symmetrically elegant profile of the Georgian house spread all over the Island. There are still many fine examples to be seen in towns and in the countryside. They are recognised by their symmetry, their temple front porch, their Palladian windows, doors with sidelights and sash windows filled with small panes.
Haszard house, Saint Eleanor’s, 1856-60.
Once again, and to conclude this wandering post, this is the Georgian Palladian house at Marshfield when I first saw it in 1982. It was still inhabited and had some of its original outbuildings. It was isolated from the Saint Peter’s Road by a jog in the highway called Linden Lane, which still exists today. It creates an intimate, secure enclave for the houses within its curve. Now it is gone and just a memory, but it was once the spot where all the acres of the estate were developed in various ways to accommodate the dream of farming in a new world brought over by British colonists.
Today that small imprint on the land is saturated by the Spirit of the Place, a spirit that was born in the Venetian Renaissance.
PATRONS
Kind persons have provided support for the expenses incurred in producing this blog. I wish to express my deep gratitude to these individuals who have helped me cover the costs of archival scans, photographs, learned journals, books and professional services.
Marcel Carpenter
Scott Davidson
Trevor Gillingwater
Henry Kliner
Earle Lockerby
Dr. Edward and Sheila MacDonald
Robert L. Scobie
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